Free tools for working technicians

NDT Calculators

190 calculations across every NDT method, each with the governing formula, a worked example and the standard it comes from. Ultrasonic beam geometry, ToFD setup, phased array coverage, radiation safety, magnetic particle amperage, penetrant dwell, eddy current depth — and the certification arithmetic nobody enjoys doing twice.

190Calculators
11Methods
FreeFormula & example

Conventional UT — beam geometry, calibration, angle-beam trigonometry, thickness and corrosion.

Acoustic impedance

Specific acoustic impedance Z = ρ·c in MRayl, for compression or shear waves, from material density and velocity.

Compression or shear

Angle beam sound path, surface distance and depth

Solves the first-leg angle-beam triangle — sound path, surface distance and depth — from any one of the three, and…

Shear wave Free

Attenuation coefficient from backwall echoes

Material attenuation in dB/mm from the amplitude difference between two backwall echoes, with the far-field beam-spread correction.

Compression or shear

Axial and lateral resolution

Smallest separation two reflectors can have and still be seen as two — along the beam (from pulse length) and…

Compression or shear

Beam diameter at range

Width of an unfocused beam at a given sound path from the divergence half-angle, for scan-plan coverage and index spacing.

Compression or shear

Beam divergence angle

Half-angle and full-angle beam spread from sin θ = k·λ/D, with k selectable for the −6 dB, −20 dB or…

Compression or shear

Corrosion rate and remaining life

Long-term and short-term corrosion rates from thickness history, and the remaining life to the minimum required thickness, following API 510,…

Compression wave

Critical angles

First and second critical angles for a wedge on a test material, plus the smallest refracted shear angle that can…

Compression or shear

Curved surface correction for angle beam on pipe

Exact sound path, central angle and arc surface distance for a shear beam scanned circumferentially from the outside of a…

Shear wave

DAC curve level and indication assessment

Builds the distance amplitude correction curve from the reference reflector law plus material attenuation, then reports how many decibels an…

Compression or shear

Decibel amplitude ratio

Convert between two screen heights and a dB difference, and find the resulting screen height after a stated gain change.

DGS / AVG equivalent reflector size

Sizes an indication as an equivalent flat disc reflector from a back-wall reference, using the far-field DGS relation together with…

Compression or shear

Elastic constants from ultrasonic velocity

Young's modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and Poisson's ratio from measured compression and shear velocities and density.

Compression or shear

Focal spot size

−6 dB focal spot diameter of a focused probe, BD = 1.02·λ·F/D, with the near-field check that decides whether focusing…

Compression or shear

Focal zone length

Depth range over which a focused beam stays within 6 dB of its peak: FZ = N·S_F²·2/(1 + 0.5·S_F), with…

Compression or shear

High temperature thickness correction

Corrects a wall thickness reading taken on hot equipment for the fall in compression-wave velocity with temperature — about 1…

Compression wave

Immersion water path

Minimum water path to keep interface multiples clear of the part, the steel path a water path is equivalent to,…

Compression or shear

Interface reflection and transmission coefficients

Pressure and energy reflection/transmission coefficients at a plane interface at normal incidence, from the density and velocity of both media.

Compression wave

Lamb wave A0 and S0 velocities in steel plate

Phase and group velocity of the fundamental antisymmetric and symmetric Lamb modes in steel plate against frequency-thickness product, with wavelength…

Maximum pulse repetition frequency

Highest PRF that will not produce ghost (wrap-around) echoes for a given maximum sound path, and the unambiguous range at…

Compression or shear

Minimum required thickness — ASME VIII UG-27 and B31.3

Pressure design thickness for cylindrical shells and straight pipe to ASME VIII Division 1 UG-27 or ASME B31.3, with the…

Near field length, circular probe

Near-field (Fresnel zone) length N = D²f/4c for a circular single-crystal probe, with the wavelength it is built on.

Compression or shear Free

Near field length, rectangular probe

Near-field length for a rectangular or square element, N = k·L²/4λ, with k interpolated from the short/long aspect ratio.

Compression or shear

Next inspection interval from remaining life

Sets the next thickness inspection interval as the smaller of the code fraction of remaining life and the code maximum,…

Rayleigh (surface) wave velocity

Surface wave velocity from the shear velocity and Poisson's ratio, with the Rayleigh wavelength and its effective penetration depth.

Surface (Rayleigh) wave

Reference reflector equivalence: FBH, SDH and notch

Compares flat-bottomed holes, side-drilled holes and notches by their far-field echo relative to a plane back wall, and converts each…

Compression or shear

Second, third and fourth leg depth

Folds an angle-beam sound path back through the wall to give the true depth and leg number for reflectors beyond…

Shear wave

Skip distance and leg sound path

Half-skip and full-skip surface distances and the shear-wave sound path per leg, giving the scanning band needed to sweep a…

Shear wave

Snell's law refraction angles

Refracted longitudinal and shear angles in the test material for a given incident angle in the wedge, using sin θ₁/c₁…

Compression or shear

Thickness grid statistics and projection

Minimum, mean, range and standard deviation for up to eight readings at a condition monitoring location, with the wall projected…

Compression wave

Transfer correction

Gain correction between the reference block and the component, with a sound-path spread term and the resulting total scanning gain.

Ultrasonic thickness from time of flight

Converts a measured pulse-echo time of flight into remaining wall thickness using the compression-wave velocity, with the probe zero (delay)…

Compression wave

Ultrasonic wavelength

Wavelength, half-wavelength and pulse period from material velocity and probe frequency, for compression or shear waves.

Compression or shear

Velocity and probe zero from a calibration block

Derives the true compression-wave velocity and the probe zero offset from timed echoes on one or two known thicknesses of…

Compression wave

Velocity correction for temperature

Sound velocity at an elevated temperature, the thickness over-read that results from ignoring it, and the corrected wall reading.

Compression wave

Wedge delay and shear velocity from an IIW block

Derives the angle-beam wedge delay and the true shear velocity from timed radius echoes on an IIW V1 or V2…

Shear wave

ToFD setup and depth arithmetic. Compression wave throughout.

ToFD backwall arrival time

Predicts the backwall reflection time on a ToFD A-scan and the time window between the lateral wave and the backwall.

Compression wave

ToFD backwall dead zone

Calculates how close to the far surface a diffracted signal can be resolved before it is masked by the backwall…

Compression wave

ToFD depth error from PCS error

Shows how much depth error an error in the probe centre separation produces at a given flaw depth, and the…

Compression wave

ToFD depth from time of flight

Converts a measured ToFD arrival time into the depth of the diffracting tip below the scanning surface.

Compression wave Free

ToFD depth resolution against depth

Converts a timing uncertainty into a depth uncertainty at a stated depth, using the gradient of the ToFD time-to-depth curve.

Compression wave

ToFD depth zone division

Splits a thick wall into ToFD depth zones and gives the PCS and arrival-time window for the selected zone.

Compression wave

ToFD flaw through-wall height

Sizes a planar flaw by converting the upper and lower tip diffraction times to depths and taking the difference.

Compression wave

ToFD gate start and width

Derives the digitising gate start, end and width from the predicted lateral wave and backwall arrival times plus operator margins.

Compression wave

ToFD lateral wave arrival time

Predicts where the lateral wave should appear on the ToFD A-scan for a given probe centre separation, velocity and probe…

Compression wave

ToFD near-surface dead zone

Calculates the depth below the scanning surface within which diffracted signals are masked by the lateral wave pulse.

Compression wave

ToFD off-axis depth error

Gives the apparent depth of a diffractor that is not on the centreline between the probes, for an offset across…

Compression wave

ToFD PCS for a target crossing depth

Sets the probe centre separation so the two ToFD beam axes intersect at a chosen depth in the wall.

Compression wave

ToFD PCS from the two-thirds wall rule

Gives the standard single-setup ToFD probe centre separation for beams crossing at two-thirds of the wall thickness.

Compression wave

ToFD probe delay and velocity from lateral wave and backwall

Solves the material compression velocity and the total wedge delay from the measured lateral wave and backwall arrival times on…

Compression wave

ToFD probe selection by wall thickness

Recommends ToFD probe frequency, beam angle, element size and number of setups for a given wall thickness, with the resulting…

Compression wave

ToFD scan increment and speed

Checks the ToFD scan increment against the allowed value and the encoder resolution, and gives the maximum scan speed for…

Compression wave

Aperture, steering, focusing and the acquisition arithmetic behind an encoded scan.

Beam width at the focus

The −6 dB beam width at a focal depth, compared with the narrowest width the same aperture reaches unfocused.

Compression or shear

Curved surface wedge fit

Gap between a flat wedge and a curved surface, whether contouring is required, and the pipe size band a contoured…

Dead element tolerance

Checks inactive elements in an aperture against the usual 25 percent and no-two-adjacent limits, with the resulting sensitivity loss.

Depth of field of a focused beam

Axial extent of the −6 dB focal zone of a focused array beam, from the normalised focal depth.

Compression or shear

Encoder resolution

Pulses per millimetre for a wheel encoder from wheel diameter, pulses per revolution and quadrature multiplier.

First element height, wedge delay and exit point

Wedge path, wedge delay and beam exit point for an active group on an angle wedge, from the first element…

Compression wave

Focal law delays

Per-element transmit delay for a direct contact or immersion linear array steering and focusing at a chosen angle and depth.

Compression or shear

Grating lobe angle

Angle at which grating lobes appear for a given pitch and steering angle, so ghost indications can be recognised and…

Compression or shear

Grating lobe free pitch

Maximum element pitch that keeps grating lobes out of the propagating field over a required steering range.

Compression or shear

Linear (E-scan) law count

Number of focal laws, index resolution and coverage width for an electronic raster scan stepping a fixed aperture along the…

Maximum focal depth

Checks a requested focal depth against the near field length of the aperture and gives the element count needed to…

Compression or shear

Maximum PAUT scan speed

Highest encoded scan speed that still records every acquisition point, from the frame rate and the scan axis resolution.

Free

Passive aperture beam spread

Elevation beam spread and width of a linear array, set by the fixed passive aperture that cannot be steered or…

Compression or shear

PAUT acquisition rate

Frames per second from the pulse repetition frequency, law count and averaging, with the PRF ceiling set by the sound…

Compression or shear

PAUT active aperture

Active aperture size of a phased array group from element count and pitch, with the aperture expressed in wavelengths.

Compression or shear

PAUT data file size

Raw file size of an encoded phased array scan from samples per A-scan, law count, scan length and resolution.

Compression or shear

PAUT near field length

Near field length of a rectangular phased array aperture using the k factor for the active to passive aperture ratio.

Compression or shear

PAUT steering limit

Maximum useful steering angle set by the directivity of a single element, and the sensitivity lost at a chosen steering…

Compression or shear

PAUT wedge geometry and refracted angle range

Natural refracted angle of a phased array wedge and the refracted angle range reachable with a given amount of electronic…

Compression or shear

PAUT weld bevel coverage

Bevel geometry, the angle that strikes the fusion face square, and the probe index positions needed to cover root and…

Shear wave

Reference sensitivity and scanning gain

Gain that puts a reference reflector at the required screen height, plus transfer correction and the code scanning gain addition.

Scan line count and index offsets

Number of parallel scan lines and the index offset between them to cover a required width with a specified overlap.

Sectorial scan law count

Number of focal laws in a sectorial sweep from the angular range and step, including multiple focal depths and groups.

Skip distance and probe stand-off

Half skip, full skip and the exit point stand-off needed to place a shear beam on a reflector at a…

Shear wave

TCG point gain

Gain needed at a TCG point relative to the reference point, from the far field reflector law and material attenuation,…

Compression or shear

TFM amplitude fidelity

Worst case amplitude fidelity loss from TFM grid sampling, and the coarsest pixel pitch that still meets a 2 dB…

Compression or shear

TFM frame rate

TFM frame rate from the delay-and-sum load and from the full matrix capture time, showing which of the two is…

TFM grid sizing

Maximum TFM pixel pitch from the wavelength, the resulting grid dimensions for a zone, and the delay-and-sum load per frame.

Compression or shear

Wedge attenuation and steering loss

Extra gain needed at a steered refracted angle relative to the wedge natural angle, from the longer wedge path and…

Shear wave
RT

Radiography

30

Exposure geometry, technique and the radiation safety calculations that keep a shot legal.

ALARA exposure planner

Combines source decay, inverse square distance and shield attenuation to give the dose rate at a work position, the dose…

Barrier distance

Finds the distance at which an unshielded gamma source falls to a chosen dose-rate limit, giving the radius of the…

Basic spatial resolution from duplex wire

Converts the first unresolved duplex wire pair on an ISO 19232-5 IQI into basic spatial resolution and image unsharpness, and…

Circumferential weld exposure count

Works out how many exposures are needed to cover a girth weld for panoramic, single-wall and double-wall techniques, from the…

Coverage angle per film

Works out how much of a pipe circumference one film covers, how many films wrap the joint, and whether film…

Detector pixel size versus IQI wire

Translates detector pixel pitch and type into basic spatial resolution at the object, the finest IQI wire that can realistically…

Dose rate at distance

Calculates the unshielded gamma dose rate at any distance from a source using D = Gamma x A / d…

Elliptical DWDI source offset

Calculates the axial source offset needed to separate the source-side and film-side weld images by a chosen amount on a…

Exposure transfer

Transfers a known good exposure to a new thickness, distance, film class or source activity using inverse square, half value…

Film density adjustment

Corrects an exposure time to move a radiograph from the density it achieved to the density you want, using the…

Gamma exposure time

Converts an exposure factor from a gamma exposure chart into a shot time for the actual source activity, distance and…

Gamma isotope library

Reference data for the six industrial gamma sources - half-life, gamma constant, mean photon energy and practical steel range -…

Geometric unsharpness

Calculates radiographic geometric unsharpness Ug from focal spot size, object-to-film distance and source-to-object distance, and checks it against the ASME…

Half value layer and tenth value layer

Half value layer and tenth value layer for the industrial gamma sources in lead, steel, concrete and tungsten, with the…

Inverse square law

Converts exposure time and dose rate between two distances using the inverse square law, for both exposure planning and radiation…

IQI selection

Selects the required hole-type and wire-type image quality indicator for a material thickness to ASME V T-276, with ASTM E747…

Lead screen and backscatter selection

Recommends front and back lead screen thicknesses for a given radiation quality and sets out the ASME V backscatter check.

Minimum SOD for pipe

Minimum source-to-object distance for panoramic, single-wall and double-wall pipe techniques, and whether the geometry available inside the pipe can meet…

Minimum source-to-object distance

Finds the shortest source-to-object distance that still keeps geometric unsharpness inside the ASME V T-274.2 limit for the material thickness.

Normalised signal-to-noise ratio

Normalises a measured signal-to-noise ratio to the ISO 17636-2 reference basic spatial resolution of 88.6 micrometres, and gives the measured…

Personnel dose tracker

Tracks an individual radiation worker against the 20 mSv annual average, the 50 mSv single-year ceiling and the 100 mSv…

Pipeline crawler positioning

Axial stopping tolerance for an internal crawler on a girth weld, the panoramic geometric unsharpness, and the travel and cycle…

Radiographic equivalence factors

Converts a thickness of any common engineering material into the steel-equivalent thickness for a given radiation energy, so a steel…

Radiographic magnification

Calculates projected image magnification from source-to-object and object-to-film distances, with the unsharpness penalty and the optimum magnification for a microfocus…

Radiographic sensitivity

Calculates achieved radiographic sensitivity as a percentage of material thickness from the finest wire or smallest hole visible on the…

Shielding thickness

Calculates the shield thickness needed to bring a gamma field down to a target dose rate, with an added half…

Source decay

Calculates the present activity of a gamma radiography source from its assay activity and the elapsed time, for any of…

Free

Source replacement date

Calculates how many days remain before a gamma source decays below a chosen working activity, and the exposure time penalty…

Stay time

Calculates how long a person may remain in a known dose-rate field before reaching a chosen dose allowance.

X-ray tube voltage selection

Gives the maximum permitted X-ray tube voltage for a steel-equivalent thickness and a lower starting kV that preserves radiographic contrast.

Amp-turns, prod spacing, central conductor coverage and field verification.

Cable wrap magnetisation

Current, number of turns, cable length and shot positions for longitudinal magnetisation by wrapping a flexible cable around a part.

Central conductor magnetisation

Current and rotation schedule for a centred or offset central conductor, including the effective inspection band of about four conductor…

Coil shot current, high fill factor

Ampere-turns and coil current for longitudinal magnetisation of a part that fills the coil, NI = 35 000/((L/D)+2).

Coil shot current, intermediate fill factor

Ampere-turns for a part in a coil whose bore area is between 2 and 10 times the part area, interpolated…

Coil shot current, low fill factor

Ampere-turns and coil current for longitudinal magnetisation of a part inside a low fill factor coil, NI = 45 000/(L/D).

Free

Demagnetisation steps and residual field

Number of reversing, decaying magnetising steps needed to bring a residual field below the acceptance limit, typically 3 G.

Direct circular magnetisation current

Head shot current for direct circular magnetisation at 300 to 800 A per inch (about 12 to 31 A/mm) of…

Effective L/D ratio for coil magnetisation

Effective diameter of a hollow or tubular part, D_eff = sqrt(OD² - ID²), and the resulting L/D ratio clamped to…

Magnetic field strength unit conversion

Converts a magnetic field reading between A/m, kA/m, oersted, gauss, millitesla and tesla, and checks it against the 30 to…

Magnetic particle bath concentration

Settling test result in mL per 100 mL against the 0.1 to 0.4 mL fluorescent and 1.2 to 2.4 mL…

Magnetising shot duty cycle

Minimum rest between magnetising shots for a stated duty cycle rating, with the continuous-method minimum shot duration and shot count.

Prod technique current and spacing

Magnetising current for the prod technique from prod spacing and material thickness, with the 50 to 200 mm spacing limits.

UV-A irradiance at working distance

Scales a measured UV-A irradiance to a different working distance by the inverse square law and checks it against the…

Yoke lifting power check

Checks a measured yoke lift against the code minimum - 4.5 kg (10 lb) for AC yokes and 18 kg…

Dwell and process timing by material, discontinuity type and temperature.

ET

Eddy Current

12

Penetration depth, phase lag, frequency selection and conductivity.

Bobbin probe sizing for tube ID

Bobbin probe diameter range for a tube, sized to a target fill factor band (commonly 85 to 90 %), with…

Coil impedance and reactance

Inductive reactance, total impedance, phase angle and Q of an eddy current probe coil at the test frequency, plus the…

Conductivity and resistivity conversion

Convert between %IACS, conductivity in MS/m and resistivity in uohm.cm or nohm.m, using the International Annealed Copper Standard reference of…

Eddy current array coverage and pitch

Active coverage width of an eddy current array from element count, pitch and width, with pass count for a given…

Eddy current phase lag with depth

Phase lag of the eddy current at a given depth (57.3 degrees per standard depth of penetration), with the depths…

Fill factor and lift-off sensitivity

Fill factor for a bobbin or encircling coil from coil and bore diameters, with radial clearance and the loss of…

Limit frequency for rod and tube testing

Forster limit (characteristic) frequency for an encircling coil on a rod or tube, the frequency ratio f/fg at the test…

Remote field transition and probe spacing

Exciter-to-detector spacing for remote field testing of ferromagnetic tube, with the double-transit wall phase lag and attenuation at the chosen…

Scan speed and sampling rate

Maximum eddy current scan speed for a required number of samples across the smallest reportable flaw, with the sample spacing…

Standard depth of penetration

Eddy current standard depth of penetration (skin depth) from resistivity, relative permeability and test frequency, with field strength at the…

Free

Test frequency for a target depth

Eddy current test frequency needed to place a target depth at a chosen number of standard depths of penetration, with…

Tube wall loss from phase angle

Percentage through-wall loss and remaining wall in a tube, read from the measured signal phase angle by interpolating between the…

Acoustic emission, leak testing, visual, thermography, guided wave, MFL and civil NDT.

AE Felicity ratio

Divides the load at which significant acoustic emission restarts by the previous maximum load, and compares the result against the…

AE linear source location

Locates an acoustic emission source between two sensors from the difference in arrival time and the measured wave velocity.

AE planar location and sensor spacing

Gives the hyperbolic locus for one sensor pair and sets the maximum array spacing from the measured attenuation of the…

Borescope field of view and resolvable detail

Projects a borescope's angular field of view onto the target at working distance and gives the smallest feature the sensor…

Concrete ultrasonic pulse velocity

Converts path length and transit time into pulse velocity, classifies the concrete quality and estimates the dynamic modulus of elasticity.

Compression wave

Direct visual examination conditions

Checks viewing distance, viewing angle and surface illuminance against the direct visual examination requirements of ASME V Article 9, ISO…

Dry film thickness acceptance

Applies the ISO 19840 surface profile correction to gauge readings and tests them against the mean, 80% minimum, 20% count…

Emissivity and reflected temperature correction

Corrects a radiometric temperature reading for surface emissivity, reflected apparent temperature and atmospheric transmission, and shows how sensitive the result…

GPR velocity and target depth

Converts two-way travel time to target depth using the wave velocity from relative permittivity, and back-calculates permittivity from a target…

Guided wave test range from attenuation

Converts the available amplitude budget and the pipe's attenuation per metre into a realistic guided wave inspection range, with the…

Compression or shear

Half-cell potential corrosion probability

Converts a half-cell potential reading to the copper/copper sulphate scale and reads the ASTM C876 corrosion probability, with the thresholds…

Helium test detectability

Scales a leak detector's minimum detectable leak rate by the helium partial pressure actually present, giving the smallest real leak…

Leak rate unit converter

Converts a leak rate between mbar·L/s, Pa·m³/s, atm·cc/s, Torr·L/s, sccm and scfh so acceptance criteria and instrument readings can be…

Free

Lock-in thermography diffusion length

Gives the thermal diffusion length for a modulation frequency and material, and the frequency needed to probe to a required…

MFL saturation and scanning speed limit

Compares the flux density an MFL magnetiser achieves at scanning speed with the level needed for saturation, using the magnetic…

NDT unit converter hub

One-stop conversions for the units NDT actually uses: length and thickness, pressure, temperature, velocity, density, force, stress, decibels, activity, dose…

Free

Pressure decay leak rate

Turns a pressure drop over a hold period into a leak rate, correcting the final pressure for the change in…

Pressure test pressure and hold time

Applies the code multiplier and temperature stress ratio to a design pressure to give the required hydrostatic or pneumatic test…

Pulsed thermography depth and observation time

Relates defect depth to the thermal diffusion time for a material, giving the observation window needed and the depth reachable…

Rebound hammer strength estimate

Applies the impact-direction correction to a rebound number and converts it to an indicative compressive strength, or to a site-calibrated…

Thermal camera spot size and IFOV

Projects a thermal camera's instantaneous field of view onto the target to give the spot size at distance, and the…

Tracer gas leak rate correction

Converts a leak rate measured with one gas into the equivalent rate for another, using the molecular-flow square-root-of-molar-mass law or…

Heat input, carbon equivalent, hardness conversion and ferrite number.

Brinell hardness from indentation diameter

Converts a measured Brinell indentation diameter, ball diameter and test force into HBW, with the ISO 6506-1 indentation-ratio and load-diameter…

Carbon equivalent CE(IIW), Pcm and CET

Calculates the IIW carbon equivalent, the Ito-Bessyo Pcm cracking parameter and the EN 1011-2 CET from steel chemistry, with a…

Free

Hardness scale conversion

Converts between HV, HBW, HRC, HRB and HK for non-austenitic steels using the ASTM E140 conversion tables, with an indicative…

Free

Larson-Miller / Hollomon-Jaffe tempering parameter

Computes the Larson-Miller tempering parameter for a heat treatment and converts a soak at one temperature to the equivalent time…

Pipe schedule dimensions and weights

Looks up outside diameter, wall thickness, bore, metal area, mass per metre and contained volume for ASME B36.10M and B36.19M…

Preheat temperature to EN 1011-2 Method B

Calculates minimum preheat for ferritic steel from CET, combined thickness, diffusible hydrogen and heat input using the EN 1011-2 Method…

Vickers hardness from diagonal measurement

Converts the two measured diagonals of a Vickers indentation and the test force into HV, with the ISO 6507-1 diagonal-difference…

Weld metal volume and filler consumption

Calculates groove cross-section, deposited weld metal mass and the filler quantity to purchase, from joint geometry, weld length and process…

Welding arc energy and heat input

Calculates arc energy and heat input in kJ/mm from arc voltage, current and travel speed, applying the EN 1011-1 thermal…

WRC-1992 chromium and nickel equivalents

Computes the WRC-1992 Creq and Nieq from weld metal chemistry and gives the predicted solidification mode, ready to plot on…

Minimum thickness, MAWP, remaining strength and Level 1 FFS screening.

Qualification hours, exam grades, recertification dates, dose tracking and unit conversion.

Formulas are the standard engineering forms. Values taken from codes — IQI classes, allowable stress, dwell tables, acceptance limits — are stated with the edition they come from and support engineering judgement rather than replacing it.

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